Monarchical Rome: the Glorious Centuries, 31 B.C. to Diocletian (284)

Octavian (63 B.C. - 14 A. D.), the great nephew of Julius Caesar, laid the foundations for the famous Roman monarchy, the government of the Caesars. Octavian enjoyed immense popularity because he restored order after the long period of class warfare, coups (associated with the Gracchi and their followers, populares), and civil wars (carried out by generals). Take note of the wars of the two triumvirates, which were only the most recent ones. Octavian claimed to restore the Roman Republic; that is, the ideal of communal, civic patriotism and common action, which we have learned associate with the Greek idea of the polis. He saw himself as establishing an ideal constitution that would permanently solve Rome's problems. Moreover, this included moral reform. Octavian won support from the conservative aristocrats by demanding the restoration of the old Roman religion and morality. He attacked the lax lifestyle and such practices as divorce, which had sprung up with the empire. In addition, Octavian was popular because he brought more wealth to Rome by exploiting Rome's vast empire.

Coming out the civil wars, he was a popular general with proconsular power to command armies in the provinces and consular power in Rome. With this power, he reestablished the Roman peace (pax Romana), order, and prosperity that the original republic had represented to its patriots. Octavian sagaciously avoided irritating those with Republican ideas by his modest claims to authority. He satisfied himself with the title of Princeps, or first citizen. The term princeps had not been used before. Hence, Octavian successfully claimed to have restored the Roman Republic, with all of its patriotism and morality. He had solved the moral and intellectual dilemma brought on by the creation of an imperial republic.

Take note, please, it was only his successor, Tiberius (42B.C. - 37 A.D.; r. 14-37), who first took the title of imperator, or emperor. It is true that he also accepted the designation of Augustus, but that referred to his military victories. Hence, he did not irritate the republicans.

Whatever he claimed to do, Octavian also prepared the way for absolute monarchy. We will now outline the main features of that preparation:

1) Senate power crushed. Octavian began the process by seeing to it that equestrians and Italians entered the ranks of the senators. But many of the early emperors continued to fear the Senate, especially the notorious Nero (d. 67 A.D.). Following Nero's reign, under the emperors Flavian and Antonini (r. 69- 180), the Senate came to represent the entire empire, further diluting it and making it dependent on the emperor.

2) Imperial administration. Here the story was one of assuring efficient and just government. Octavian set the standard by appointing only men who were truly competent and deserving. Irresponsible administrators were eliminated. Efficient, centralized administrative apparatus was set up. Appointments were made by the emperor. All appointees were also responsible to the emperor.

3) Local elites or governments were left to local control, so long as they rendered tribute.

4) Extension of Roman citizenship. First, Roman citizenship was extended to all soldiers in the legions. Then it was extended to any loyal supporters of Rome.

These were important foundations of absolute monarchy, but it remained for others to add additional walls to the structure. Emperor worship was added by Domitian (r, 81-96), who declared himself dominus et deus (lord and god).

All along the Roman law developed into a universal civil legal code, justifying Roman rule.

Roman Stoicism worked to provide this justification, as we shall see.