The Rise of the Generals

When the tributary kingdom of Numidia (in North Africa, near to Carthage) rose up in rebellion (111; under the indigenous King Jugurtha), it played the role of the proverbial straw that broke the camel's back. Rome had to restore control and so the Numidian or Jugurthine War began. The Comitia tributa elected a non-aristocrat to be a consul and dispatched him forthwith to North Africa to defeat the Numidians. This new consul was Gaius Marius (157-86). The rise of Marius continued the Gracchan revolution or reforms in several ways:

1. The popular assembly now made and could unmake generals wielding imperium. Moreover, consuls could now be plebeians.

2. The military would soon be brought into the political revolution.

3. Marius began the reorganization of the military system. He took to paying the army himself, instead of using citizen recruits. The army became professional and soldiers expected pay and rewards, including land upon their retirement. It is easy to see how Marius convinced those same folks to whom the Gracchi had appealed to join his army. The result was that the army now became loyal to the general who paid them, rather than to the state. Generals could now challenge the civilian authority.

The war in Africa took an interesting turn. Although Marius quickly defeated the Numidians, he failed to capture the leader or to completely crush the Numidian army. Hence, he left the fight in Numidia to a subordinate, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78), who proved to be an excellent soldier, but a jealous rival for power, too. It was Sulla who ultimately crushed the Numidians by 104. Meantime, Marius returned to Rome and took the accolades for the victory over the Numidians. Sulla, an aristocrat from an old family that had fallen on hard times, took Marius's claim of credit for the victory as a personal affront by an upstart plebeian. Then, in 104, Marius was elected consul again, and sent to the north to suppress the invading Germanic tribes. Marius was relected to five consecutive terms as consul between 104 and 100. Sulla grew green with envy at Marius's good fortune.

Students should read the chapter on the Romans to learn the remainder of the story about the rise of the generals and the fall of republic. That includes the wars of the triumvirates and the stories of Julius Caesar and Octavian's successors.