This source presents an excerpt from Caesar Augustus' own record of his accomplishments as the first "Emperor" of Rome. The text itself dates from the months before Augustus' death in 14 c.e. Although originally inscribed onto a pair of bronze tablets that would rest in the emperor's mausoleum, copies of the "Res gestae" apparently made their way throughout the Empire, for the only surviving example of this testament was inscribed onto the walls of a temple dedicated to Augustus, located in Ankara, Asia Minor (modern Turkey). The text itself is in the form of a memoir or even a "resume." It recounts the achievements of Augustus's reign. For this reason, the "Res gestae" has enormous historical value: it is a kind of mini-history of the transition from Republic to Empire, told from the perspective of one of the most important characters: Octavian, that is, Augustus himself.
Augustus' own purpose in writing this text appears to be one of self-congratulation and pride. He wants the Romans (now and in the future) to remember all that he has done for them. In terms of the actual enumeration of accomplishments, the source is incredibly accurate, which is why it is so valuable. Yet, as we would expect from this kind of text, the account betrays heavy biases. Augustus is trying to influence how future generations will perceive (and judge) him; consequently, he paints the description of his public life in very rosy terms. In using the source as evidence, one must constantly correct for this bias, above all by regarding Augustus' portrayal of public reactions to him with a great deal of skepticism.
In this excerpt from the longer "Res gestae," one reads about several stages in Augustus' life as a public "servant." Augustus describes how he entered public life at the age of twenty, putting an end to the civil wars and seeing justice done to his father's murderers. He then enumerates the various titles that the people and the Senate bestowed on him. Finally, he summarizes his public achievements: the taking of a census, his financial assistance to the state, his public works projects, the games, and the achievement of peace throughout the empire.
Roman Republic, Political Institutions, Expansion of Rome, City of Rome, Popular Entertainment, Military Affairs, Effects of Civil Wars, Transition from Republic to Empire, Effects of Peace, Finances, Religion in Rome, Political Leadership, Land ownership, Public Administration.
Part B. Interpreting the Past (The Essay)
The popular understanding of the late Roman Republic and early Empire is largely shaped by a pair of famous Shakespeare plays: Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra. Both works, however, feature a role that merits being the subject of his own play, for history has shown that he was more significant than any of the title characters. The man: Octavian or, as he would later be known, Augustus Caesar. Yet, at the end of his life, Augustus offered his own version of such a drama, the "Res gestae divi Augusti." The analysis of this text reveals that Augustus saw himself as the restorer of the Roman Republic and its rightful leader. But a closer look makes clear that, in effect, Augustus had established a form of personal rule that was merely decorated to look like a republic, thereby making his political program succeed where that of his adopted father had failed.
Throughout the text, Augustus portrays himself as the savior of the Republic. He asserts that he entered public life (in his twentieth year) to "[bring] liberty to the Republic oppressed by the domination of a faction" (para 2). Later the Senate charged him not only to protect the state, but also, after a period of civil war, to re-establish the Republic as triumvir. In these early paragraphs source, Augustus implies that the chief cause of public disorder was the murdering of Julius Caesar, his adopted father. Indeed, according to the ordering of the information, the first accomplishment of Octavian as triumvir was dealing with his father's killers whom Augustus describes as having "[taken] up arms against the Republic" (para 3). Finally, Augustus refers to the wars, foreign and civil, that he fought in order to restore the peace and permit a return to the normal state of affairs (para 4).
Augustus efforts to reestablish the Republic extended beyond defeating his father's enemies other rivals for political power (the other two triumvirs). He also endeavored to maintain the forms of Republican government and, as necessary, breathe new life into its social foundations. The clearest evidence of Augustus' intent to show his devotion to the Republic's institutions lies in his enumeration of titles. Augustus apparently refused to accept new or special offices, especially those (like that of dictator) which traditionally could only be held under exceptional circumstances (para 6). His entire account of the period of civil wars makes it clear that Augustus believed the "exceptional period" to be over. Rather, Augustus preferred to exercise power by traditional means: through the offices of consul, propreetor, and, above all, tribune. Yet, he did not himself hold all the offices at once, especially towards the end of his reign. Augustus also restored the Senate to its traditional roles of making laws and representing the people. And, he revised the patrician roles and Senate lists to bolster the Senatorial ranks, decimated by the years of civil strife (para 7). Moreover, August attempted to resurrect the republican ideal of land ownership, in large part by rewarding the citizen-soldiers with grants of land, either in Italy or in the new territories of the "Empire."
From the princeps' point of view, he had been enormously successful in saving the Republic and Rome itself. Beyond rehabilitating the old Republican institutions, August claims to have revived the traditional customs of Rome (para 7). He also poured enormous sums of money into fixing up the city of war and completing the building projects begun by his father, including two temples (para 12). Here again, the references to Julius Caesar further Augustus' claims to be but the driving force behind a renewed Roman republic. Above all, thanks to Augustus' leadership and generosity (modesty doesn't appear to be one of Augustus' strengths), Rome enjoyed the fruits of peace and witnessed the extension of its influence throughout "Europe" and the Mediterranean (paras 9 and 15).
This enumeration of Augustus' accomplishments documents the pivotal role that this adopted Caesar played in Roman -- and world -- history. Nonetheless, when we look beyond the boasts and appeals to popular memory, the "Res gestae" also reveals how Augustus slowly transferred real power from Republican institutions to his very person. Towards the end of the excerpt, Augustus proclaims that he "transferred the Republic from my own dominion back to the authority of the Senate and Roman People" (para 17). Yet, in the descriptions of his actions and the Senate's decisions, this transfer appears to have been in name only. First, on several occasions, even after 27 b.c.e., Augustus held many powerful offices simultaneously (paras 6 and 7). More to the point, the Senate decreed that Augustus would have the power of a tribune for life. Of course, the Tribune was an important public official in the Republic, but his decisions were binding on all of Rome. Furthermore, the tribunes could veto laws passed by the Senate. So, as tribune-for-life, Augustus' authority remained in practice well above that of the Senate.
Second, Augustus' representation of the Senate in this text fails to convince that the Senate had truly regained its former powers and, especially, independence. For one, by revising the Senate lists and increasing the number of Patricians (those men who could hold administrative positions in the Roman Republic), Augustus effectively packed both the Senate and the Magistracy with men who owed their positions and, in some cases, their very fortunes to him (para 7). It is highly unlikely, therefore, that any of these institutions could presume to act contrary to the wishes of the princeps. For another, in this excerpt, the Senate's actions rarely go beyond that of conferring honors on Augustus (including Augustus' name in the hymn of the Salii [para 8], decreeing a thanksgiving [para 5]) or approving his recommendations (for example, to restore ancestral customs [para 7]).
A careful reading of the Res Gestae, therefore, must arrive at the following conclusion: Augustus established an empire that only masqueraded as a republic. Yet, it also raises a key question, whose answer itself sheds valuable light on this central period in Roman history. Why did this leading man, Augustus, adopt this posture? After all, he begins his testament with the bold statement: "below is a copy of the deeds of the divine Augustus, by which he subjected the whole world to the dominion of the Roman People" (para 1). The explanation seems to lie, not in our stars, but in the very realities of Roman politics and Augustus' estimation of his self worth. The "Res Gestae" depict a man who is keenly aware of his historical importance. Augustus wants his legacy -- the "Empire" -- to endure but realizes that his achievement is not yet secure. Above all, the lesson of his adoptive father, Julius Caesar, remained potent: the Romans would not accept a king. Nor were they completely ready to dispatch with the Republic altogether. Augustus thus did what any adroit politician would do: he gave the people what they wanted. The forms of the Republic survived but real power rested in the hands of the princeps (Augustus). Only after Augustus' death had the strength of republican sentiment declined sufficiently so that Augustus' successors could claim the title Octavian long denied himself: imperator.